Racism Speech by Charles R. Lawrence -- Papers Analysis Race Essays

Racism Speech by Charles R. LawrenceIn the following essay, Charles R. Lawrence encompasses a number of reasons that antiblack speech should non be protected by the First Amendment. In this document, he exhibits his views on the subject and what he feels the society should confront these problems. In this well- written article, he provides wholesome evidence to prove his point and to allow the reader to see all aspects of the issue.On Racist SpeechCharles Lawrence has been active in his use of the First Amendment rights since he was a young boy. When confronted with the issue of racist speech, he feels that it needs to be diminished by society as a unit, because this discrimination does not sound effect one person, but society as a whole. There are many reasons that this issue disturbs Lawrence. The first being the fact that the use of racist speech on college and university campuses has greatly risen since the past. Another reason he is troubled is the fact that there are actual people being victimised and being perceived as a minority because of race, sex, class ...

Sexual Harassment in the Workplace :: Workplace Harassment Essays

Sexual badgering in the work place is one of the most troubling matters for an employer. If it is left(p) unattended, claims of intimate harassment could place the business at serious risk for costly financial damages and ruined reputations. Employers must open their eyes to the conjecture that sexual harassment could happen in their work place and must take all possible steps to prevent its occurrence. In legal terms, sexual harassment is any unwelcome sexual advance or conduct on the job that creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive working environment. Sexual harassment is any offensive conduct related to an employees gender that a reasonable woman or man should not have to endure.Sexual harassment covers a wide range of conduct that is all illegal. An employee who has been led to believe she must sleep with her boss to keep her job has been sexually harassed, as has one whose fellow workers on a regular basis tells offensive, sex-related jokes and plaster their walls with pictures of nude women. An employee who is pinched or fondled against his or her will by a co-worker has been sexually harassed, as has one whose colleagues smirk at her, evade her path or act like theyre going to grab her. An employee who is constantly belittled and referred to by sexist or demeaning names has been sexually harassed, as has on who is subjected to repeated rude or pornographic remarks. Sexual harassment occurs when a supervisor acts as if the women working under him owe him sexual favors, and it overly occurs when a co-worker attacks or intimidates a woman because he doesnt think she should be doing what he considers mans work. It occasionally drives from an excess of sexual desire by the harasser, still most often it is motivated by fear, power or hate. Most cases of sexual harassment ar never reported, because the harassed women are also degraded, too uncertain of their rights or too fearful of retaliation to do anything ab by it. Thousands of har assment claims have been filed through government agencies and company complaint procedures.There are many misconceptions about sexual harassment that many men fear. Sexual harassment laws have prevented men from complimenting a woman or asking her out for a date, which is acceptable. Nothing in the law prevents dating, as long as it is done in a reasonable manner that respects a co-worker?

Nucleic Acids :: essays research papers

DNA is the single most important molecule make within cells. It is a stable polynucleotide, which contains coded information for inherited characteristics. It is contained in chromosomes in the nucleus of an eukaryot cell. The indwelling features of the Watson-Crick model atomic number 18 summarised below.1. The 2 helical polynucleotide chains ar coiled around a common axis. The two chains have opposite signboard i.e. they argon antiparrallel.2. The regular repeating sugar phosphate anchor of severally strand lies on the outside of the helix. The purine and pyrimidine root words project inwards at 900 to the axis of the helix.3.The two strands are held together by heat content bonding amid pairs of bases such that guanine always pairs with cytosine and antiophthalmic factor always pairs with thymine this is called complementary base pairing3. The diameter of the helix is 2.0 nm and adjacent bases are separated by 0.34 nm and inclined at 360 relative to each other. This me ans that each complete turn of the double helix contains about 10 base pairs.4. The amount of guanine is usually equal to that of cytosine.The monomers of RNA and DNA are called nucleotides. individually nucleotide has three partsA Five carbon paper or Pentose SugarThe sugar will be one of two very alike pentose peal. Ribonucleic acids contain the sugar ribose. Deoxyribonucleic acids contain the sugar deoxyribose. The only end between these two sugars is that deoxyribose contains one oxygen atom less than ribose. Pentose sugars are essential because they are involved in linking different nucleotides together by compression reactions.The Nitrogen-Containing BasesThere are two types of bases found in nucleic acids. The purine bases have two nitrogen containing rings, while the pyrimidines have only one. In DNA the purines are adenine (A) and guanine (G) and the pyrimidines are cytosine (C) and thymine (T). In RNA the purine bases are the same as in DNA, but the pyrimidines are cytosine and uracil (U). These rings have the chemical property of being bases because of the nitrogen atoms they contain.Adenine always forms 2 hydrogen bonds with thymine.Cytosine always forms 3 hydrogen bonds with guanine.Nucleic Acids essays research text file DNA is the single most important molecule found within cells. It is a stable polynucleotide, which contains coded information for inherited characteristics. It is contained in chromosomes in the nucleus of an eukaryot cell. The essential features of the Watson-Crick model are summarised below.1. The two helical polynucleotide chains are coiled around a common axis. The two chains have opposite polarity i.e. they are antiparrallel.2. The regular repeating sugar phosphate backbone of each strand lies on the outside of the helix. The purine and pyrimidine bases project inwards at 900 to the axis of the helix.3.The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonding between pairs of bases such that guanine always pairs with cytosine and adenine always pairs with thymine this is called complementary base pairing3. The diameter of the helix is 2.0 nm and adjacent bases are separated by 0.34 nm and inclined at 360 relative to each other. This means that each complete turn of the double helix contains about 10 base pairs.4. The amount of guanine is usually equal to that of cytosine.The monomers of RNA and DNA are called nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three partsA Five Carbon or Pentose SugarThe sugar will be one of two very similar pentose rings. Ribonucleic acids contain the sugar ribose. Deoxyribonucleic acids contain the sugar deoxyribose. The only difference between these two sugars is that deoxyribose contains one oxygen atom less than ribose. Pentose sugars are essential because they are involved in linking different nucleotides together by condensation reactions.The Nitrogen-Containing BasesThere are two types of bases found in nucleic acids. The purine bases have two nitrogen containing rings, wh ile the pyrimidines have only one. In DNA the purines are adenine (A) and guanine (G) and the pyrimidines are cytosine (C) and thymine (T). In RNA the purine bases are the same as in DNA, but the pyrimidines are cytosine and uracil (U). These rings have the chemical property of being bases because of the nitrogen atoms they contain.Adenine always forms 2 hydrogen bonds with thymine.Cytosine always forms 3 hydrogen bonds with guanine.

Water in New Jersey Essay -- Environment Environmental Essays

irrigate in New JerseyResidential, commercial and industrial development is the largest contributors to landscape change in the call down of New Jersey. When buildout occurs in one region, development pressure begins in another, virtually insuring the Megalopolis concept of one huge urban corridor reaching between Boston and Washington D.C. Year after year, farmland dwindles, roads become congested, and more residents atomic number 18 left to compete for diminishing natural resources. horrific measures and newer technologies are incorporated to replace poor planning and lack of vision on behalf of decision-makers caught between competing interests. When the long term health and wellbeing of the established creation and the short term gain of a limited number of people compete for vital natural resources there should be no question whos interests should prevail. Water resources tend to be taken for granted in New Jersey and why shouldnt they? Rainfall and runoff from snowfal l are plentiful, averaging over forty inches per year. The state is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on one side and the Delaware River on the other, with reservoirs containing billions of gallons of water, and large underground aquifers in between. Its hard to imagine a famine of this abundant resource. Under normal conditions, this would be the case, but under drought conditions, as has been experienced throughout the winter of 2001 - 2002, the residents of New Jersey are obligate to confront the stark reality of the situation that we may be entering into a severe water supply crisis. Mandatory water conservation and unfaltering penalties for noncompliance may do what preservation and antidevelopment advocates have been trying to do for decades in the state of Ne... ...ment to New Jersey using water resource concerns as a tool to limit large-scale suburban development. These southern agricultural counties are a unique region where large numbers of people are dependent on va luable groundwater resources to continue living in a healthy environment.ReferencesNew Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, 1993, New Jersey 1992 farming water quality inventory report, chapter IV, 44p.Blair, Russell, 2002, Telephone interview with Cape May County Agricultural Agent, blemish 5, 2002New Jersey Farm Bureau, 2002, Statistics obtained at website as of March 5,2002, www.njfb.orgNew Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, 2002, Statistics obtained at website as of March 5, 2002, www.state.nj.us/dep/watersupply/United States Geological Survey, 2002, Statistics obtained at website as of March 3, 2002, www.usgs.gov

Chaos In William Shakespeares King Lear :: essays research papers

A device which Shakespeare often utilized to convey the confusion and nut house within the plot of his plays, is the reflection of that confusion and chaos in the natural environment of the setting, along with supernatural anomalies and animal imageries. In King Lear, these devices are used to communicate the plot, which is summarized by Gloucester as&8230This villain of mine comes under the prediction there&8217s sonagainst father. The King falls from bias of naturethere&8217s father against child. (Act 1, Sc.1, 115 - 118)The &8220bias of nature is outlined as the natural inclination of the world. Throughout the play King Lear, the unnatural inclination of nature, supernatural properties and animal imageries are used by Shakespeare to illustrate the pell-mell state of England, which was caused by the treacheries of the evil characters.Gloucester is a character in the play who firmly believed that man&8217s fate has supernatural properties that are controlled or reflected by the h eaven and starsThese late eclipses in the sun and moonPortend us to no good. Though the wisdom of nature can reason it thus and thus, nonetheless nature findsitself scourged by the sequent events. (Act 1, Sc. 2, 109 - 113)This is proclaimed by Gloucester as he is told by Edmund of Edgar&8217s supposedly treacherous plot to remove him from power. Gloucester&8217s depose in Edgar faltered as a forget of Lear&8217s irrational banishment of Cordelia and Kent, coupled with recent anomalies in the heavens. Gloucester believed that Lear&8217s actions also came as a result of the star&8217s unusual behaviour. Edmund, the treacherous and bastard son of Gloucester, exploits Gloucester&8217s blind believe in the stars in his plot to oust Edgar out of the heritage and ultimately to gain all of Gloucester&8217s wealth and landThis is the excellent foppery of the world, thatwhen we are sick in fortune (often the surfeits ofthe sun, the moon, and stars, as if we were villainson necessity fools by heavenly compulsion knaves,thieves, and treacherous by spherical predominancedrunkards, liars, and adulterers by an enforcedobedience of planetary influence and all that weare evil in, by a divine thrusting on.(Act 1. Sc. 2, 125 - 133)As a result of the irrational acts of trust by Lear and Gloucester, the state of England crumbled due to corruptness and treachery of Regan, Goneril and Edmund. At the point of ultimate chaos, Lear is disdained by his two evil daughters and has none of the power and honour of his kingship, and the state of nature reflects this chaos in the form of a degenerate storm

Free Handmaids Tale Essays: Life and Times of Margaret Atwood :: Handmaids Tale Essays

The Life and Times of Margaret Atwood   Three Sources Cited     Atwood was born in Ottawa, Ontario, on November 18, 1939. She lived in a cabin in the Canadian wilderness for most of her childishness (her father was a forest entomologist), and that is where she gained her love for books and reading - probably from boredom. She also took up writing during this time, at the age of six (Margaret Atwood). Sshe came to want ot be a source her senior year in high school when she says, all of a sudden a big thumb came out of the sky and stirred my head and a poem was formed. Who would relieve oneself thought that the young girl who lived in the woods would grow to become a prominent female writer and poet? Atwood went on to attend Victoria College at the University of Toronto. She received a bachelors degree there in 1961 and went on to receive her Masters from Radcliffe College in Cambridge, Mass. In addition, she attended Harvard University in 1962 - 63 and 1965 - 67 (Information Page). When she made the decision to be a writer she said she wanted to lead a double bearing. (Margaret Atwood). This double life would complicate going places I havent been to examine life on earth to come to know people in ways, and at depths, that are otherwise impossible to be surprised...to give back something of what I have received, said Atwood (Margaret Atwood). She certainly achieved this goal of a double life. Atwood managed to live many places around the world in order to examine life on earth. Here is a time line of the places she lived during certain years of her life.       1939 - 1945 Ottawa 1945 Sault Ste. Marie 1946 - 1961 Toronto 1961 - 1963 Boston 1963 - 1964 Toronto 1964 - 1965 Vancouver 1965 - 1967 Boston 1967 - 1968 Montreal 1968 - 1970 Edmonton 1970 - 1971 England (London), France, Italy 1971 - 1972 Toronto 1973 - 1980 Alliston, Ontario 1980 - 1983 Toronto 1983 - 1984 England, Germany 1985 Alabama 1986 - 1991 Toronto 1 992 France 1992 - Present Toronto   As is evident, she liked to bm around a lot and to see different people and different things (Information Page).        Although Atwood would have preferred to stay home and write all day she did have a number of jobs over the years.

Free Handmaids Tale Essays: Life and Times of Margaret Atwood :: Handmaids Tale Essays

The Life and Times of Margaret Atwood   Three Sources Cited     Atwood was born in Ottawa, Ontario, on November 18, 1939. She lived in a cabin in the Canadian wilderness for most of her childhood (her father was a forest entomologist), and that is where she gained her love for books and reading - probably from boredom. She also took up writing during this time, at the age of six (Margaret Atwood). Sshe came to want ot be a writer her senior year in high school when she says, all of a sudden a big thumb came out of the sky and touched my head and a poem was formed. Who would have thought that the young girl who lived in the woods would cause to become a prominent female writer and poet? Atwood went on to attend Victoria College at the University of Toronto. She received a bachelors degree there in 1961 and went on to receive her Masters from Radcliffe College in Cambridge, Mass. In addition, she attended Harvard University in 1962 - 63 and 1965 - 67 (Information Page). When she made the decision to be a writer she said she wanted to pack a double life. (Margaret Atwood). This double life would include going places I havent been to examine life on earth to come to know people in ways, and at depths, that are otherwise impossible to be surprised...to give back something of what I have received, said Atwood (Margaret Atwood). She certainly achieved this goal of a double life. Atwood managed to live many places slightly the world in order to examine life on earth. Here is a time line of the places she lived during certain years of her life.       1939 - 1945 Ottawa 1945 Sault Ste. Marie 1946 - 1961 Toronto 1961 - 1963 capital of Massachusetts 1963 - 1964 Toronto 1964 - 1965 Vancouver 1965 - 1967 Boston 1967 - 1968 Montreal 1968 - 1970 Edmonton 1970 - 1971 England (London), France, Italy 1971 - 1972 Toronto 1973 - 1980 Alliston, Ontario 1980 - 1983 Toronto 1983 - 1984 England, Germany 1985 Alabama 1986 - 1991 Toronto 199 2 France 1992 - Present Toronto   As is evident, she liked to move around a lot and to see different people and different things (Information Page).        Although Atwood would have preferred to persist home and write all day she did have a number of jobs over the years.

Rewriting American History

Rewriting American History highlights the changes that remove taken lieu in America from the 19th century to the 20th century. It analyses information contained in various textbooks about American history and highlights how peoples views have changed over the years. It highlights the various changes that have taken place and how these changes have affected the American citizens. It outlines the various changes that have taken place in America over the years. It outlines the various historical events and their impacts. It dates grit to the immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe in 1900 and their impact to the friendly integration.These migrants were portrayed as a problem since the original American inhabitants viewed them as invaders. This brought about social disharmony among the people, and it compromised the process of social cohesion and integration among the people. By 1930s, many texts emphasized on the gap between the immigrants and Americans. This gap widened becaus e the Americans did not learn how to have it away with these people. By the 1940s, the issue of immigrants had become a contentious issue. All the texts written during that period focused on immigrants and the social collapse they had caused.There was a clear feature between the original Americans and the immigrants. The foreigners were discriminated against by the Americans. By I960s, texts ceased to talk of the immigrants as being distinct from the Americans. This was facilitated by the civil right activists who condemned the discrimination in the country. In the mid(prenominal) 60s history reconstruction was written. The rewrite of history was meant to bridge the gap between people of different races. In the 20th century, the issue has been resolved through odium of racial discrimination.Social conflicts have been minimized, and people of different races can live harmoniously. The historiographer and his facts The historian and his facts outline what defines history and the role of facts used in defining history. It emphasizes that facts should posture out directly how history should be written. The article extrapolates on the need of imaginative understanding when writing history. History should be viewed as a continuous dialogue between the past and present. History should be an outline of the historians facts. In addition, the historian should be ready to respond to critics.This will ensure that the historian uses conjectural facts in his/her quest to rewrite history. Similarities Rewriting American history and the historian and his facts are similar in the sense that both articles focus on the rewriting of history. In both articles, history is a continuous process which bridges the past and present. History shows how past events have influenced the present. In both articles, the historian provides credible facts to substantiate the contents of his work. Both articles focus on how history has been used as a tool of transformation.History highligh ts the past events and shows how the outcomes of the events can be used to rail and transform the lives of people. Differences Rewriting American history focuses wholly on the American history. Historian and his facts, on the other hand, gives a general view of how a historian should use facts in defining history. Rewriting American history outlines a series of events that took place in America between the 19th and the 20th century. On the contrary, historian and his facts does not track any past events. It gives the overview of how the historian should go about with the rewriting of history.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) Essay

charitable immunodeficiency virus (Human Immunodeficiency virus) causes support (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) that disables the immune system.It was discovered in 1983 .HIV enters the body by dint of the bloodstream and duplicates itself rapidly.The victim is susceptible to infectious diseases that eventu tout ensembley be fatal (1).Statistically, HIV/AIDS is the number one killer of black women ages 25 to 34, consort to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Between 2000 and 2003, they were baseball clubteen time more likely than White females and five times more likely than Hispanic females to contract the disease.African-American men were septette times more likely than White men and three times the rate of Hispanic men to contract HIV/AIDS (2).In 2008, there is still not a cure for AIDS.Instead, scientists piss discovered medicines that can s deplorable down the progression of the disease. protease inhibitors (PIs) be antiviral agent drugs that s d isordered down the spread of HIV (1). The virus produces a protein called protease so that it can replicate itself.Protease cuts long chains of proteins and enzymes into shorter chains, the first bill in the process by which HIV infects a cell (1).If this doesnt happen, replication does not continue.In 1987, AZT was the first anti-HIV medication that was created. It showed hope and kept people healthier longer. However, the side effects were very high for men. Since that time, more HIV medications have evolved.Antiretroviral therapy usually consists of combinations of nucleoside/nucleotide snarf transcriptase inhibitors, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitors, or fusion inhibitors, which be prescribed in the later stages of HIV (19). Dual protease inhibitor therapy is also being employ clinically (3).They atomic number 18 also associated with improving morbidity and mortality of HIV- incontrovertible persons (5).Although these drugs are expensive, they have proven to be the most successful therapy in managing HIV. However, some patients dont keep an eye on 100% with their discussions. This is largely due to the side effects. Sometimes they make a patient feel worse than the actual disease.The most commonly reported ones are abdominal pain, abnormal bowel movements, diarrhea, fatigue, headache, and nausea. Children usually develop a skin rash. The more serious side effects are liver problems and pancreatitis. Some patients have also seen large ontogenesis in triglyceride ad cholesterol levels. Diabetics saw an increase in their blood sugar levels. another(prenominal) patients developed diabetes while winning protease inhibitors (16). Presently, nine PIs have been approved for use in the United States and Europe amprenavir, atazanavir, fosamprenavir, lopinavir, indinavir, ritonavir, saquinavir, tipranavir, and nelfinavir.Three non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) are used for treatment of HIVnevirapine , delavirdine, and efavirenz (7). Drug treatment selection depends on factors such as drug resistance, tolerability, drug interactions, and effectiveness. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) has been proposed so that practitioners may better insist appropriate blood plasma concentrations of drugs in their patients by identifying interactions with other medications and assessing medication adherence (7). Figure 1 shows the structures of these compounds.Fig. 1. Chemical structures of protease inhibitors and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors.About 50% of treatment-nave patients dont have continued antiviral response after one year of therapy (18). In some cases, there is a development of drug resistance and metabolic complications. Also, there is increasing evidence that virological treatment failure is correlated with variations in the pharmacokinetic parameters of drugs (20). This can be due to drug interactions, low bioavailability, and variations in metabolic enzyme activity. Atazanavir (ATV) has good oral bioavailability and a favorable pharmacokinetics profile (18). With this in mind, patients can mostly take a once-daily dose.A separate analytic regularity has been recently published for quantifying ATV in human plasma using solid phase extraction and HPLC with PDA (photodiode array) signal detection at 201 nm (18). This order provides excellent separation of ATV from its internal standard, clozapine (CLZ) and the other PIs, thus, obtaining an right cadence of the drug (see figure 2). CLZ elutes at 8.9 minutes, and ATV elutes a 24.4 minutes. A 40-ml injection resulted in a recovery yield of 100%.Fig. 2. Chromatogram of ATV with PIs/NNRTIs (8000 ng/ml) spiked with CLZNelfinavir mesylate has been shown in phase III tick offled clinical trials to significantly reduce viral load and increase CD4+ cell counts when used with reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Its prescribed as part of triple drug combination therapy (9). CD4+ are helper T ce lls. They are important for immune reconstitution in patients that are receiving antiretroviral therapy (10). After a large number of these cells are destroyed, AIDS develops (7).Six clinical trials was conducted in the past tenner years using 2, 148 HIV-infected children enrolled in the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group treatment trials (10). Patient ages varied from 2 to 7 years of age. The focus was to reveal short-term variability of CD4 percentages. The study found that 49% of patients had CD4 percentages in a higher place 25%. 32% of patients had CD4 counts between 15% and 24% 19% were less than 15%. Finally, 5.4% had a CD4% of less than 5% (10).In June 2006, Darunavir (DRV) was licensed in the United States. It is a promising PI that is active against HIV strains that are resistant to the other PIs that shortly on the market (17). It is prescribed in 600-mg doses that are taken in two ways daily with 100 mg of ritonavir that acts as a booster.Protease inhibitors are as sociated with unfavorable pharmacokinetics and many side effects such as gastrointestinal disturbances and lipid abnormalities (5).Four of the most common PIs used are indinavir, ritonavir, saquinavir, and nelfinavir (3). supervise blood concentration of PIs, which can indicate both therapeutic and toxic levels of the drugs as well as patient noncompliance with the medication, may improve the commission of both HIV-infected adults and children (3).When ritonavir was first introduced, it was given in doses of 600 mg every 12 hours. However, patient intolerance of full doses led to its primary use as a pharmacologic enhancer to increase the concentrations in plasma of a second protease inhibitor to improve the convenience of antiretroviral regimens by extending the dosing interval, reducing pill burden, and /or eliminating food-induced reductions in pharmacokinetic exposure (8).Researchers used High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) to determine concentrations of PIs in blood. Various methods have been used to study the pharmacokinetics and drug interactions. Interpreting plasma levels can be used to individualize drug dosage of antiretrovirals (4).Quality control (QC) procedures must be done to ensure that these methods are accurate and precise.such(prenominal) procedures usually include intralaboratory (internal) method validation, intralaboratory QC procedures, and participation in an interlaboratory QC program for antiretroviral drugs (4). Since the latter hadnt been done before, it was established so that laboratories can obtain better measurement results of antiretroviral drugs.Nine laboratories participated in the first part of the program.The first part of the experiment involved the measurement of the protease inhibitorsindinavir, nelfinavir, ritonavir, and saquinavir.All had a specified purity of 99% or higher.QC samples were prepared by spiking blank plasma from HIV-negative volunteers with PI standard. The low concentrated standards ranged fro m 0.087 to 0.15 mg/L while the intermediate concentrated standards contained ranged from 2 to 3 mg/L of all four PIs.Finally, the high-concentrated standards contained approximately 5 to 11 mg/L of drug.All drugs were dissolved in methanol following accurate weighings and diluted with blank plasma (4).High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) was used to analyze twelve samples.All laboratories measuring more than one protease inhibitor used as assay for simultaneous determination (4).Six laboratories used HPLC/UV and three labs used HPLC-MS/MS. Mass spectroscopic analysis detection is often recommended for measurement of low concentration levels.Also, this type of analysis is usually faster and does not require complete resolution of drugs for detection and quantification (5).Only five laboratories were able to measure all four PIs.Three laboratories were not able to determine nelfinavir.One laboratory only measured indinavir (4).Acceptable accuracy results are between 80% and 120%.Only indinavir resulted in an acceptable accuracy of 80%.The remaining PIs had between 36% and 74% accuracy.These results should encourage laboratories to improve their analytical methods and QC procedures.Other PIs, such as amprenavir and lopinavir, can be analyze as well (4).HIV-positive plasma samples are heat inactivated before analysis, approximately 58C for 40 minutes, to decrease the risk of infection to the operator.They may also go through a freeze/thaw cycle. As with the QC study, blank plasma was spiked with seven PIs (indinavir, amprenavir, atazanavir, ritonavir, saquinavir, lopinavir, and nelfnavir) at low, intermediate, and high concentrations measured in ng/ml.Certain assays only require 100 l of plasma for analysis.This is advantageous when measuring PI concentrations as part of clinical studies as they often necessitate hourly sampling to generate complete PK profiles therefore less blood can be emaciated from the patient (5).In addition, seven PIs can be quan tified in one assay, but impossible to assay all seven in a adept preparation.The use of fluidity chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) has emerged as the developmental method of choice supporting clinical and pre-clinical pharmacokinetic studies (13). Recovery for the HPLC-MS/MS methods was above 87% for all seven drugs at all three concentration levels (5).It was successful in quantifying seven PI concentrations in plasma of HIV positive persons that participated in a run time of nine minutes.Therefore, the assay may be used for determining PI concentrations in semen, lymphocytes, and cerebrospinal fluid (5).A fast and highly-sensitive LC-MS-MS method was developed that could analyze five protease inhibitors (amprenavir, indinavir, nelfinavir, ritonavir, and saquinavir) in one run using an internal standard. Sample sizes were small (ng/ml) and run times were approximately 5 minutes. Recoveries for all five PIs were between 87% and 92%(11).Tipranavir is pa rt of a class of non-peptidic PIs that works against both wild-type virus and variants resistant to circulating(prenominal) PIs(6).It also has a high genetic barrier.Tipranavir is prescribed in a 500-mg dose taken in combination with 200 mg of ritonavir twice daily as part of antiretroviral therapy for patients with HIV-1 strains that are resistant to multiple PIs (6).Fig. 3. Tipranavir chemical structureAn HPLC-UV method has been validated and is currently applied when monitoring tipranavir (TPV) plasma levels in HIV patients.Samples were prepared for solid phase extraction (SPE) by conditioning the cartridges with 0.1% phosphoric acid, pH 7.TPV stock solutions with a concentration of 5 mg/ml were diluted from with 50% methanol. Samples were spiked with TPV at 1.875, 7.5, 18.75, 37.5, 60, and 75 g/ml in triplicate. QC samples were diluted with blank plasma and phosphate buffer to 5.625, 22.5, and 67.5 g/ml.clozapine was used as the internal standard (6).5-ml aliquots of blood samp les were obtained from HIV infected patients.The plasma obtained from centrifugation was heated at 60 C for one hour in a water bath.TPV in plasma was measured at a UV absorbance of 201 nm with a retention time of 32.2 minutes. Its internal standard, clozapine (CLZ) has a retention time of 8.3 minutes (6). Figure 4 below shows the chromatogram of TPV, its internal standard, and all other PIs and NNRTIspresent. Figure 5 shows TPV and its internal standard CLZ only.Fig. 4. Chromatogram of plasma control sample of TVP (22.5 mg/ml) spiked with internal standard and all PIs and NNRTIs.Fig. 5. Chromatogram of calibration sample of TVP (37.5 mg/ml) spiked with internal standard CLZ.Isocratic HPLC methods combined with the use of UV and fluorescence detection produces more sensitivity. Amprenavir is a fluorescent compound. Its internal standard PR25 can also be seen under fluorescence (see figure 6).Fig. 6. Blank plasma with 100 ng/ml amprenavir and 1000 ng/ml of PR25 seen under fluorescenc e.In conclusion, much progress has been made in the development of protease inhibitors and other antiretroviral therapy. HPLC with UV detection has been the most commonly used method of analysis. It is rapid, simple, and highly sensitive. LC-MS-MS has been noted at the developmental method of choice for clinical and pre-clinical pharmacokinetic studies (13). More compounds can be analyzed in less time. Also, they can be used for methods using other human biological matrices.For the majority of protease inhibitors, all side effects are not known. In 2007, darunavir was the new HIV protease inhibitor with eleven other antiretroviral agents on the market. They can affect patients that have diabetes, liver problems, and hemophilia their conditions can worsen as a result of taking PIs. Only a patients health care provider can determine the best treatment optionREFERENCESNagel, Rob. 2007. Protease Inhibitors. UXL Encyclopedia of Science cited 2008 May 8, Available from http//galenet.gale group.com/servlet/SciRC?ste=1&docnum=cv2644301082.Health Hotline HIV and Genital Herpes cited 2008 May8 Available from http//www.ebony.com.HPLC Assay for Common Protease Inhibitors Developed.Antiviral Weekly cited 2008 May 07 Available from http//galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/SciRC?ste=1&docNum=A60069570.Aarnoutse, Rob E., Verweij-van Wissen, Corrien P.W.G.M., van Ewijk-Beneken Kolmer, Eleonora, W.J., Wuis, Eveline, W., Koopmans, Peter P., Hekster, Yechiel A., and Burger, David, M. 2001. International Interlaboratory Quality Control Program for Measurement of Antiretroviral Drugs in plasma Antimicrobial Agents and Chemo 46(3) 884-886.Dickinson, Laura, Robinson, Lesley, Tjia, John, Khoo, and Saye, Back, David. 2005. Simultaneous determination of HIV protease inhibitors amprenavir, atazanavir, indinavir, lopinavir, nelfinavir, ritonavir and saquinavir in human plasma by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry J of Chrom. B 82982-90.Colombo, S., Beguin, A., Mar zolini, C., Telenti, A., Biollaz, J., and Decosterd, L.A. 2006. Determination of the novel non-peptidic HIV-protease inhibitor tipranavir by HPLC-UV after solid-phase extraction J of Chrom. B 832138-143.Rezk, Naser L., Tidwell, Richard R., and Kashuba, Angela D.M. 2004. High-performance liquid chromatography assay for the quantification of HIV protease inhibitors and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors in human plasma J of Chrom. B 805241-247.Shelton, Mark J.,Hewitt, Ross G., Adams, John, Dela-Coletta, Andrew, Cox, Steven, and Morse, Gene D. 2003. 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Simultaneous determination of five HIV protease inhibitors nelfinavir, indinavir, ritonavir, saquinavir and amprenavir in human plasma by LC/MS/MS J of Pharm and Biomedical Analysis 30675-684.Verbesselt, R., Van Wijngaerden, E., and de Hoon, J. 2007. Simultaneous determination of 8 HIV protease inhibitors in human plasma by isocratic high-performance liquid chromatography with combined use of UV and fluorescence detection Amprenavir, indinavir, atazanavir, ritonavir, lopinavir, saquinavir, nelfinavir an d M8-nelfinavir metabolite J of Chrom. B 84551-60.Frerichs, Valerie A., DiFrancesco, Robin, and Morse, Gene D. 2003. Determination of protease inhibitors using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry J of Chrom, B 787393-403.Gangl, Eric, Utkin, Ilya, Gerber, Nicholas, and Vouros, Paul. 2002. Structural elucidation of metabolites of ritonavir and indinavir by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry J. of Chrom. 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Of Mice and Men †Curley’s Wife Essay

Curleys wife is the only women in the ranch, as we lettered from the previous chapters, and is not given a name as she is seen as Curleys property. First destined to be an actress as she recounts to Lennie, Candy and Crooks, her chances were taken out by her mother who thought she was too young and she so ended up at the ranch by marrying Curley, concerned in getting away from her opportunity-breaker mother as soon as possible. From this we can already observe her high self-esteem, thinking it was only because of her mother that she didnt end up in acting, not because of her possible lack of great talent. But marrying Curley wasnt maybe finally the best choice.Confined almost all day in a two-by-four house, she has to listen to her men-hater husbands only conversation about what he is going to do to the fellows he doesnt like, or to support his non-care about her. She doesnt like him, says he is too selfish and proud of himself (we can notice that these are also two of her self-ch aracteristics). These facts lead her to become lonely and hostile to men, regarding them as responsible for her bad situation.The only benefit she uses from her marriage is her superiority against the other men, being the wife of the bosss son and so having the business leader of having them fired, power from which she abuses, for example by forcing Lennie, Crooks and Candy to speak to her. This shows her manipulative and intelligent character but also her tremendous loneliness. She is mean, bitter and prejudiced against them (she calls them the weak ones, hobos, and discriminates them by treating them severally of dum-dum, nigger and lousy old sheep), but she has an irrepressible need to talk to them.

In What Ways Does The Character Of Othello Conform to Literary Tradition Of The Tragic Hero?

Othello is one of Shakespeares around famous tragedies entwined with death, hate and deceit. It tells the story of a well respected and admired war hero, who piecemeal through the ply f on the wholes from aggrandise. We are told how jealousy mortifys him so greatly that he murders his innocent lover, and how the resentful Iago seeks r even offge on other characters in the fulfill as he envies their positions of power and authority and uses lies, stealing and even murder to get revenge.A nonher theme explored in the play is racism. We know Othello has worked hard to beat racial prejudices in society to reach such a point of great authority and respect, and this makes his story even more sad because it wasnt as if whole that power and status was just given to him. It was his lifes work, it meant everything to him and accordingly he lost it all.In literary tradition a tragical hero is a stalwart person who has authority and power so far loses it all. The steps a tragic hero makes during his decline are entirely his own. Although influenced by a nonher, the tragic hero continuously displays free will, and the decisions that lead to his demise are his own, which means that had he of been more careful his death could have been avoided. It was Othellos fault because of his lack of trust in Desdemona, which resulted in the destruction of them both. Tragic heroes do not necessarily need to die however they do in all the plays written by Shakespeare. If they do live, whence they are destined to suffer moral destruction and lose sense of what is right and wrong, blinded by their line upings and the suffering that they have experienced.It is crucial that a tragic hero possesses many good personality traits, even if he is a bad person and has evil intentions such as Macbeth, exclusively they must all have one fatal flaw.Othello had both grandeur and wispyness. However Othello possessed too much greatness, and was too successful, impressive and too gallan t and couldnt believe that he had ever been wrong. Once he lost his pride and dignity it was all over for him because he had nothing else.Othello is a successful sp exterminate because he has overcome many dangers and is full of awe-inspiring stories of his courage, will- power, bravery and physical strength. He sounds completely dedicated to his work, and nothing seems to distract him from it as he is al styluss completely concentrate on it. Every conversation he has he refers to it and we dont know that he has any other interests. Even his relationship is dominated by his work.Desdemona is captivated by his distinguished stories and is full of admiration towards him in a sense it is his status and the excitement of his amazing adventures that she has gleamen in love with, not Othello himselfShed come again, and with a greedy earDevour up my discourse.Here Othello tells the nobles who have met to discuss battle plans, interrupted by Brabantio accusing Othello of using witchcraf t to make Desdemona fall in love with him, that she started to fall in love with him when he told her the stories of the journeys he had make and the battles he had fought in. He calls her fascination with them. The word greedy suggests she was suffering from a believe to hear more and devour suggests that she was desperate to take as much of it in as possible.It could be said that the couple were unceasingly destined for sadness because they were not actually in love, just with each others imageShe loved me for the dangers I and passed,And I loved her, that she did pity themOthello is describing how he knew that she loved him for his experiences in life and desperate character, and that he loved her because she admired him so much. This is an example of how Othello is far too proud, as he loved her only because she was so full of praise for him. This makes me think of that he wont be a very good husband as he is too self absorbed, and it sounds as if he is far more interested ab turn up himself than with his wife. Maybe winning her heart was just another achievement to him.Iago is overcome with envy when Othello is sent on an urgent military mission in Cyprus and he does not receive the promotion that he was intently waiting for. Instead the position of Lieutenant is given to a issue Florentine soldier Cassio. In anger Iago seeks revenge on them both for professional and personal reasons. His revenge on Othello is targeted through his relationship with his wife he wants to make Othello feel pain and emotional up pot, by convincing him that his wife is seeing Cassio behind his back and likes him above Othello, and he believes will achieve this. He knows that Othello is always utilise to being the one who everyone admires and looks up too and that he always gets what he wants, and always seems to win, whether in work or love. Iago wants him to feel as if there is individual better than him and that he isnt as good as he thinks he is.He plans to poison Othello against his innocent wife and frame Cassio by planting a handkerchief belonging to Desdemona in Cassios bedchamber. Iago is fraught with jealousy as he feels that he has worked hard to achieve what he wants, position in time and effort, yet it has been Othello who has been rewarded, through what seems like little effort and pure luck.Iago is an evil force because he is ruthlessly interfering with their relationship, several(prenominal)thing which has nothing to do with him and it isnt as if that will even make his berth any better or solve anything. It is pure revenge without any regard for their tinges. What is even worse is that during this he is acting as a friend to Othello, and it is far more painful to be struck by a friend than an enemy. Othello believes Iago is someone that he undersurface trust and this is for certain not true.When Othello is told of Desdemonas adultery, he seems instantly win over that it is true, which shows that he doesnt have much faith in her, or know her very wellThis fellows of exceeding honesty,He seems completely decided about her immediately and believes Iago without question. We know that he does not believe Iago because of insecurity or low self-esteem, so Othello and Desdemonas relationship toilette neer have been very good if he instantly believes Iagos word over her. He suddenly seems completely against her and starts to focus on how maybe people had well-tried to warn him against her, and the reasons that it wouldnt work out. He dialog about both his race and age.Othello copes with this seemingly fatal blow by convincing himself that he hates Desdemona and she is a kept womanShes gone I am abused, and my reliefMust be to loathe her.This puts a great deal of pressure on his pride, but to keep feeling good about himself Othello curses her, in a bid to convince himself that he is better off without her and deal with the situation. This actually shows him to have a very weak character despite his heroi c image as he has to convince himself she is so terrible just to make himself feel good. In a way even at this point we could say that he is a tragic hero, as he does have some very apparent faults and we can know his demise. He has shown strength in body, but not in mind.Once he has been convinced of Desdemonas guilt, Othello believes that everyone is mocking him and laughing at him behind his backA fixed figure for the time of scorn.He thinks that he has been made a fool, by Desdemona who he now sees as calculating and deceptivePatience, though young and rose lipped cherubin,Ay, there look grim as hellHere he is reflecting on the transformation that he feels Desdemona has made, from a pure, innocent supernal creature of beauty to a fierce, evil, cunning whore. This is a contrast between good and evil, with the images of heaven and hell, which we could compare to the themes of good and evil in the play correspond by Desdemona and Iago.The language at this time of the play moves v ery swiftly from positive to negative, as if we can feel the evil Iago has created gradually spreading everywhere. We can also see in the quote language which is very poetic, and a great use of metaphors such as how he refers to Desdemona as a cherubin as she seemed so good and innocent. This is unusual for Othello as earlier in the play he scorns his own use of poetic languageI prattle out of fashion (act2scene1)Here he is referring to his speech to Desdemona after their arrival in Cyprus, and is admitting to himself that he is usually a far more plain speaker without catch language or poetic phrases. This would suggest that either Desdemona brings out a different more romantic side in him, or that he is acting a role in front of her to convince them both that he is a perfect lover as well as soldier.Now by using this poetic style language, which he scorned before, to convey his anger the audience are struck by the feeling that he has been encompassed by some kind of change, and it signifies the success of Iagos plan.The final scene of Othello is constructed in such a way that speeches of dramatic eloquence are entwined with straightforward dialogue. Othello is now completely convinced that he must kill Desdemona, and he tries to justify himself by saying he is doing it for the good of other men. I think another flaw in Othellos character is that his work, fighting as a hero for his people and killing enemies, is so much a discussion section of even his everyday life, that he has bewilder blinded by jealousy and in a kind of madness is suggesting that killing Desdemona has to be make as part of his duty. What really makes him a tragic hero is that he had led himself to believe that what he is about to do is correct, yet he save loves her and so he is confused.Othello talks about what he is going to do as if it is something that has to be done, as if he is putting an animal out of its miseryIt is the cause, it is the cause, my soulHe thinks that he is sa crificing her to an ideal rather than murdering her in vengeful hatred.A lot of emphasis is now placed on her beauty, especially the whiteness of her skin. Othello tells himself that he has to kill Desdemona, yet he does not want to ruin this beautyYet Ill not shed her blood,Nor scar that whiter skin of hers than snow.The whiteness of her skin described makes us think about her faithfulness and innocence, and it is another contrast with colour, light things personifying goodness. This makes us think of the good and evil in the play again. He is trying to avoid marking her body as she is so pretty. Maybe he also does not want to damage her body because he is convinced that he is doing a good thing and percentage her, and he doesnt think that it needs to be a violent slaughter just a quiet sacrifice. He no longer thinks about his anger, but just wants to do what he considers has to be done. By believing what he is about to do is the right thing Othello is following the typical fall of a tragic hero, acting on what he believes to be true and thinking that his actions are correct.Again we think of her purity and goodness when he talks about putting out the light which personifies her as a light in reference to her life. He also refers to her as a rose, which shows that he is keen to compare her to things that appear to be nice, maybe because we know that he stills appreciates her beauty, or maybe because he sees it as a disguiseWhen I have pick off the rose,I cannot give it vital growth again.This is a euphemism for death. From the second line we know that Othello realises what he is about to do is irreversible the words vital growth mean that once he has plucked the rose (Desdemona) and taken her life, he cannot give it back again. This may show that he has given the murder some thought, but he certainly has not considered it rationally or thought about the consequences of his actions. It think that the way Othello is now using metaphors to describe everythi ng it proves that he is not thinking clearly and that he is caught up in some kind of obsession, quite apart from reality. By never referring to it directly, it makes us think he is not looking at the whole situation in a sensible or wise way.By kissing Desdemona one last time, Othello shows that he is still drawn to her and loves her, yet he doesnt want to believe it. It builds up a lot of tension for the audience because right until the last moment we are still wondering if he will regard and change his mind, as it is obvious there is still love there. He wants to remember her the way she was when he was in love with her, charming and beautiful and not betraying or cheating on him. It is obvious that he values perfection, and he would rather her be dead and beautiful than alive and hurting him and causing trouble.During this part of the play Othello has been so taken over by evil that, as an audience, we start to hate him and feel anger at his violence, jealousy and severe misjud gement of his wife.I think also we can recognise a certain naivety within his character, for trusting someones word enough to kill the person he cares for most in the world.In the final few minutes of the play when Othello is confronted with the reality of what he has done by the other men, he is full of remorse and can see that he has made a terrible mistake. He tries to remind them of the man of greatness that he once wasI have done the severalize some service and they knowtHere he is remembering how noble he used to be and he is reminding them of what he has done for them all in his heroic past. Maybe he is also trying to reassure himself that he has been a good person in his life before now, and of the good things that he has achieved. He asks the men there to speak of him how he really is, and to talk about his behaviour the way it wasSpeak of me as I am nothing extenuate, nor set down aught in malice.He is asking them not to excuse his actions, but not to talk of him brutally either. He wants them to tell the truth as they see or believe it, and to think about his reasons. This shows that he is trying to keep some dignity and that he values honesty in people, which suggests that still he is a good person. He describes himself as a person that does not usually get jealous, but was wrought with it, and perplexed in the extreme. Again he uses poetic language to express how he feelsLike the base Indian threw a pearl away.Here he is using another metaphor, this time to describe how he just threw Desdemonas life away and destroyed her, and how he was unaware of her true value and ignorant about the special person that she was.In the end all tragic heroes come to terms with what they have done, and realise that they have made terrible mistakes and have been acting without reason but on their emotions. Othello then takes the decision to end his own life, as he feels that he has been reduced to nothing and has lost everything he ever worked for. He has completel y fallen from grace and meets the stereotyped image of a tragic hero perfectly as he goes from courageous hero to the disgraceful position of a murderer. He talks about himself as two peopleWhere a malignant and a turbaned Turk,Beat a Venetian and traduced the stateHe sees himself as both an time-honoured soldier and a murderous lover, but he doesnt want to live as what he has been reduced to. He cant live with himself after realising what he has done and the full extent of his actions. He may kill himself because he feels that he deserves it for doing such a think, but I also think that his dignity plays a big part as he wants to retain some of that and his pride. He refers to himself as a Turk in this passage, which of course his is, but he has always been recognized as part of the Venetian society, and never referred to as that.He is trying to make the point that he is their servant and enemy and will never truly be one of them because of his colour. By this we can tell that he truly has lost all his pride and self assurance, as he never made any statements about this before and always believed in himself and that he could succeed. It has all been the simple emotion of jealousy inside him that has caused the deaths of an innocent woman, a brave and noble man and a passionate love affair.I think that Othello is a true tragic hero because he goes from such a height of greatness to such shame and disgrace. He loses everything. He clearly makes his own decisions, even though he is greatly influenced by Iago. Then at the end of the play he recognises his mistakes and sees his fatal flaw that he was too trusting of Iago and that jealousy blinded his love, and led him to become what he has. His character has changed from the beginning of the play, where he is confident, proud and well-respected to the end when he is remorseful, full of shame and looked down on in disgrace.However he has remained determined all the time to do what he believes, and has always be en honest even though people havent been with him.The play evokes feelings of frustration and sadness frustration at the ignorance of Othello about the characters around him, and sadness at the cost of his actions, and deviation of an innocent life. Othello is completely in the tradition of a literary tragic hero and dies a victim of his own making.

Explain and critically assess Weber’s conception of power

IntroductionThis es maintain explains and critically assesses Max webers world of world-beater. In the current guinea pig weber is determine as manifesting both the Hobbesian and Machiavellian proto-realist perspectives in conceptualising major power as fundamentally connected to implicit threat and despotic force. Hence the current study outlines the ship canal in which Webers notions of power hinge largely on the states coercive capabilities, examining various forms of hunt downer, political, and cultural effect therein. Further, the current study draws comparisons between Weber and Marx, looking at the similarities and distinction between the two thinkers concluding that Weber has a different and more complex catch of sectionalisation divisions and power struggles than Marx did.The Many Faces of forefinger Legitimate Domination and Willing SubjugationThe renowned German sociologist Max Weber came to prominence in the latter fractional of the nineteenth century, a time in which the politico- sparing theories of his precursor Karl Marx were beginning to take hold in Europe when the the spectre of Communism, as the Communist manifesto termed it, was haunting the continent (Marx and Engels, 2012, p.33). Moreover, this was a time of great hearty and political transformation in the West, whereupon the overall character of European polities had been drastically altered by waves of democratic fervour and revolutionary violence. The Revolutions of 1848, for instance, represented the single closely concentrated outcrop of political upheaval in the report of European politics. The 1848 revolutions, says Micheline R. Ishay, were a watershed. In the most industrialized countries, they broke the liberal-radical republican alliance against legitimist regimes and catalysed the formation of the most radical human rights perspectives of the century (2008, p.121). In a truly significant sense, verbalize revolutions were a movement against the established powe r structures of the era. This was a time of great liberal reform and technological change the social and political apparatuses by which world(prenominal) relations were hitherto understood were being fundamentally transformed as were theoretical conceptions of power.Although the 1848 Revolutions were mostly checked and curbed within a year of their outbreak, the underlying judgement and intellectual kindling had not been extinguished. Instead, it fomented in various forms one of which would lead eventually to the rise of Communism in the early twentieth century. With such apparent changes in the makeup of political relations during the nineteenth century, there came concurrent shifts in critical perspectives on how and why such changes occurred. Marx had upheld a perspective that prioritised diachronic materialism and the fundamental primacy of syllabus struggle as defining political relations. Power, for Marx, concerned the power of those capitalist elites who owned the means of production to exploit the workers whose lug literally made production happen. Marxs political philosophy was extremely widespread, known even to those who abjured it. For Marx, power also has much to do with sectionalisation divisions curiously between those who own the means of production, the bourgeoisie, and the workers, or proletariat, who exchange their labour value for wages. Power is consequently manifested in the oppression of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie for whom the social and political structures are geared to preserve the status quo, keeping the workers in a state of social, economic, and political subordination. Marxs understanding of power, then, is concerned with large crustal plate social and historic forces, particularly as they relate to material and industrial relations in determining power and overall socio-political mechanics.Weber, on the other hand, highly-developed an approach that varied from the Marxian mould, stepping away from the perceive d predominance of grand overarching forces in determining social and political relations. As a result, Weber also move away from Marxs theory of the strict bourgeoisie/proletariat duality as being the dominant paradigm in political economy. The latter crystalise division was, for Marx, the principle animus for change in capitalist societies. As a consequence, Marxs conception of power cannot be separated from his overall understanding of the relationship between capitalists and workers. For Weber, socio-economic divisions, and their relations to power, are far more complex than those posited by Marx. Weber understood class distinctions as deriving from more than salutary an inequality in property relations instead, Weber posited that it was the unequal distribution of power that resulted in social dividing lines. Power for Weber was, again, more intricate and mixed than the kind Marx had proposed. Weber states that power is the chance of a man or of a number of men to realize the ir own will in a communal action even against the resistance of others who are participating in the action (1968, p.926). Already we can see that Webers rendition of power is more abstract and open to interpretation that that of Marx. Further, Webers conception of power is similar to modern critical formulations of same where power, at its most fundamental, entails the capacity of one actor to make another actor do something which they would not otherwise do (Haugaard, 2004, p.304). Most importantly, Webers definition is really broad it allows for application in a number of contexts social, economic, political, cultural, familial, sexual, interpersonal, and many others.Violence and Coercion the Centrality of Force in Power RelationsWebers conception of power is inextricably connected to violence and coercion (Kreisberg, 1992, p.39). Such violence is articulated though various social structures, from the microcosm of the family to the macrocosm of the state. Weber consequently sees subjects as being on the receiving end of structures of power (Whimster and Lash, 2006, p.22). The interactions between these discrete structures of power allow for digressing degrees of control over the exercise of violence where certain individuals or groups have access to or are denied the means to exert their will. For Weber, such means beat to ideas of legitimacy. Hence, for Weber, the question of power relate to issues about who controls the means of violence who enjoys a monopoly over economic resources who controls the rightful(a) means of political power and finally who has control over symbolic force (Turner, 2002, p.215). Social action is thus enabled by control of distinct fields of power. The more such fields of power can be channelled and consolidated, the more power that obtains. This can be seen very sort outly, for example, in the states exclusive mandate on effectual violence (via armed forces, police, prisons, and so forth). Hence Weber defines the state as that effect within society which possesses the monopoly of legitimate violence (cited in Wanek, 2013, p.12). Accordingly, in Webers view, the implicit threat of violence perpetually underwrites the states authority. gum olibanum Webers line anticipates Mao Zedongs famous declaration that political power grows out of the barrel of a gun (cited in Wardlaw, 1989, p.43).For Weber, then, coercive force is fundamental to power. Put simply, coercion equates to influence and influence is power. National political power is wherefore structured on implied coercive mechanisms. Hence Weber avers that if no social institutions existed that knew the use of violence, then the state would be eliminated (cited in Wagner, 2002, p.120). So conceived, the state is in itself a form of coercive apparatus. Because the state monopolises legal violence, the state is the primary source of power as such. This means access to power is achieved via access to and control over the mechanisms of state. Power i s thus manifested in the special(prenominal) structures on which the social order is based. However, Weber does not believe that power is constituted in coercive force exclusively. Instead, a dynamic of obedience obtains between the ruling class and those ruled in which the latter group voluntaryly obey their political leaders. Here, Webers conception of power becomes more complex, delineating ideas of legitimate domination. As Weber perceives it, social conformity, or, as he puts it, performance of the command, may have been motivated by the ruleds own opinion of its propriety, or by his sense of duty, or by fear, or by dull custom, or by a desire to obtain some benefit for himself (1968, p.947). The dominated thus inadvertently cooperate in their domination.Hence we can see that Webers conceptualisation of power echoes a Hobbesian perspective, which stresses a important causality between a sovereign power and popular subjugation (Sreedhar, 2010, p.33). Furthermore, state pow er and interest are related to a conflictual paradigm where expedience and the will to domination are taken as a given. Weber thus articulates a realist perspective. In addition, Webers notion of legitimate domination somewhat chimes with Gramscian hegemony, in that power is constituted and reconstituted in various complex sites, workings overall to legitimise the status quo. As a result of this, Weber is distinct from Marx in two very important ways firstly, he sees power as more abstract, subtle, and complex than Marx does secondly, he sees power as deriving from many different types of social phenomena not just class struggle. Following this logic, Weber also applies the same extended complexity to the concept of the origins of power. Thus, for Weber, power comes from common chord different sources class (economic power), status (social power), and parties (political power) (Levine, 2006, p.6). As we can see, then, Webers conception of power is based on coercion, force, domin ation, social structures, and a quasi-hegemonic socio-political structure that promotes and induces willing subjugation in the populace.Webers ideas are clearly more reflective of realist political theory than of Marxian idealism, which posits utopic notions of eventual global socialist harmony. This is not to say that Weber wholesale rejects the Marxian position, he does not rather, he accommodates Marxs economic arguments in his overall politico-economic model. Further, he expands upon and problematises them. As one would therefore expect, much alike(p) his conception of power, Webers conception of class is far more nuanced and open to interpretation than that of Marx. For Weber, class pertains to the numerous potential relations that may obtain in a given economic market. In particular, this relates to relationships that arise between an individual, or a group, as concerns a given market. This means that different kinds of economic distinctions will give rise to specific forms o f class relation not just a worker/capitalist polarity. Weber sees class as a social concept that encompasses numerous iterations within an overall economic purview. Such iterations include professionals, landowners, bankers, financiers, and many others (Hamilton, 1991, p.182). In sum, then, Weber recognises numerous different kinds of class distinctions, severally with their own complex sets of power relations. This heterogeneity, in turn, adds complexity to the overall exercise of power in its specific fields and sites of operation.For Weber, then, power relates to a multiform phenomenon. In treating of the economic dimensions of power, Weber observes that the typical chance for a supply of goods, external living conditions, and personal life experiences are fundamentally determined by the tally and kind of power, or lack of such, to dispose of goods or skills for the sake of income in a given economic order (1968, p.927). Hence Weber observes a clear causal continuum between economic and other kinds of power, where one can come to necessitate (or, at least, facilitate) the other. Where Weber significantly diverges from Marx is in his posited importance of the modes of power that function semi-independently of economic considerations. Specifically, Weber places much emphasis on social status. For Weber, status groups are collectives of people with similar lifestyles, and they often overlap with economic class position (Levine, 2006, p.6). In other words, the socially powerful tend to be located in economically powerful cohorts at the same time, those without social power tend to be associated with non-economically powerful cohorts. This last assertion can seem very similar to the Marxian view, of the powerful bourgeoisie and non-powerful proletariat. However, the important distinction in Webers position is that affinities are drawn more primarily from social, not economic, similarities. Put simply, for Weber, two individuals or groups with similar social lives but different economic statuses could puzzle nonetheless their social alignment supersedes their economic misalignment. The economic distinction is not, for Weber, as integrally conflictual as it is for Marx.This is not to say the Weber does not see class as an important social factor rather, it to say that, unlike Marx, Weber does not see class struggle as the defining characteristic of history and society. He does not therefore adopt Marx and Engels famous assertion that all history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle (2012, p.33). Hence, slice Weber sees class as a significant variable in overall quality of life, in dictating ones opportunities for advancement, for the encyclopedism of power, he does not identify a corollary primacy in class as catalysing social action and historical change. Friction between social forces as corporal by class is not the central source of social tension. This has to do with Webers complex and diverse view of class. Weber sees class as heterogeneous and thus not easily reducible to two opposing factions. Compared to Weber, Marxs views of power and class are overly reductive. Of the worker, Weber observes, his interests may vary widely, according to whether he is constitutionally qualified for the task at hand to a high, to an average, or to a low degree, meaning, in consequence, that societal or even of communal action from a common class situation is by no means a universal phenomenon (Weber, 1968, p. 929). In other words, the working class cannot simply be lumped together in a bloc group understood as sharing uniform priorities and ambitions. In many senses, that is, power moves beyond material and economic divisions cannot be attributed to isolated causes and motivations.Conclusion In conclusion, Webers conception of power is much in keeping with that proffered by classical realists, where coercive force constitutes the primary hinge around which political power moves. By extensio n, other manifestations of power both derive legitimacy from, while at the same time reciprocally legitimating, the state by functioning within its purview. Weber diverges from Marxian reductivism, rejecting the polarity of capitalist/worker class struggle and the primacy of historical materialism. Weber accordingly refutes Marxs position that common class identity is sufficient to galvanise a homogenous intellectual action he thus identifies many more lines of division between various social groups. For Weber, power is deeply related to social structures indeed, power is seen to body forth though social structures, thereby keeping the popular masses in place. Interestingly, the power invested in said structures works, also, to instil a sense of obedience in the public. The public therefore helps to perpetuate the status quo by conforming with, thus legitimating, the states exercise of coercive force.ReferencesHamilton, P., 1991. Max Weber, Critical Assessments 2 Volume 2. London Ro utledge.Haugaard, P., 2004. Power A Reader. Manchester Manchester University Press.Ishay, M. R., 2008. The History of Human Rights From Ancient Times to the Globalization Era. Berkley, CA University of California Press.Levine, R. H., 2006. Social Class and Stratification Classic Statements and Theoretical Debates. Oxford Rowman & Littlefield.Marx, K. & Engels, F., 2012. The Communist manifesto A Modern Edition. London Verso.Sreedhar, S., 2010. Hobbes on Resistance Defying the Leviathan. New York Cambridge University Press.Turner, B. S., 2002. Max Weber From History to Modernity. New York Routledge.Wagner, H., 2002. War and the State The Theory of International Politics. stat mi University of Michigan Press.Wanek, A., 2013. The State and Its Enemies in Papua New Guinea. Richmond Curzon Press.Wardlaw, G., 1989. Political Terrorism Theory, Tactics and Counter-Measures. New York Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.Weber, M., 1968. Economy and Society An Outline of interpreti ve Sociology, New York Bedminster Press.Whimster, S. & Lash, S., 2006. Max Weber, Rationality and Modernity. Oxon Routledge.

Law Employer/Employee Relationship Essay

To pose whether an individual is an employee or independent dumbfoundor under the common law, the family blood of the worker and the business must(prenominal) be examined. every last(predicate) in all evidence of control and independence must be considered. In an employee-independent takeor determination, all information that set ups evidence of the degree of control and degree of independence must be considered.Independent Contractor or EmployeeUnder federal and state laws, an independent contractor must be sightly that, independent. He or she must try a product or service without punching a time clock or being told how to do the job. Independent contractors be described as persons prosecute in occupations who contract to perform work according to their own methods, without being subject to control of the employer except for the result. Before an employer can determine how to treat payments it makes for services, the employer must first know the business relationship t hat exists between employer and the person performing the services.The person performing the services may be an independent contractor or an employee. Simply because an employer refers to a worker as an independent contractor or he or she has agreed to the arrangement in a written contract does not mean that the individual is correctly classified as an independent contractor. Likewise, the fact that payments are issued by accounts payable rather than the payroll department in like manner does not mean that the person is an independent contractor. The nature of the relationship between the individual and the employer is the true determinant, and misclassification can result in serious consequences for an organization.In bloody shames case, the scenario is vague and may need a little more information in order to give an accurate assumption on whether or not bloody shame is a contractor or an employee. Mary was hired for a special programmer project as a contractor and just as the pro ject was nearing completion, a new project came into play. For this new project, Mary was required to use company materials and equipment while adhering to company schedules, which makes it seem as though she was being treated as an employee. Mary, at one point being an independent contractor, has now developed a relationship with the employer, the more likely there is an employer/employee relationship,and the tables at this point have turned.Not only has Mary been working for the company for a number of years, Mary is now working under the charge of a supervisor, using company materials and equipment, not to mention that she now has to adhere to the company work schedules. Under common-law rules, anyone who performs services for you is your employee if you can control what give be done and how it will be done (Internal Revenue Service, 2004).Employer / Employee RelationshipThe employer/employee relationship between Mary and slim Lamb has changed over the course of time. With re spect to Marys services, are they regularly available to the general worldly concern? They should be, and if Mary does not attempt to make the availability of his/her services known to the general commonplace, her relationship with Little Lamb could be viewed as an employer-employee relationship. The primary issue here is who is running the ship. Does Little Lamb have the right to hire or kindling, determine the wage or salary to be paid, and decide on the time, place, and manner in which the work is to be done? If so, then the employer-employee relationship exists. Also, even if Little Lamb does not directly control Marys activities, but has the right to do so, the notion of control still exists. Under the common-law (20) criteria test, an employer-employee relationship is present between Mary and Little Lamb Company. use at-willOne critical employment law issue affecting employee enchiridions and policy manuals is employment at will. Employment at will is traditional common law perspective that an employee may seek work and quit at any time, and likewise, that the employer may hire and fire at any time for any reason or no reason. Employees always have the right to quit their jobs, no matter how inconvenient their vent may be for the employer. The employers right to fire or terminate the employee is not quite so simple and clear-cut.Some employees work under a written contract that specifies exactly the circumstances under which they can be terminated. If the agreement sets out a termination procedure, then it is a breach of contract to terminate the employee without following the procedure. Further, in states where at-will employment does exist, it is littered with statutoryexceptions. That means you cannot terminate workers if the discharge infringes on a protected right or goes against public policy (Falcone, 2004).Many employee terminations are based on a need to downsize, rather than on the employees individual poor performance (D. Shilling 1998). W hen employees are classified as reduction in force, it should be clarified that they are not at fault. Downsizing also affects a companys public profile, and its ex-employees can become either good-will ambassadors or the complete opposite.Marys release was legal under the doctrine of employment at-will, providing she was an employee. Employment-at-will status does not provide employees with job security, and an employee can be fired on a moments notice for any legitimate reason, or for no reason at all. On the other hand, if Mary was a contractor, then Little Lamb would have broken the employment contract which would be illegal.There are five dollar bill key exceptions to the employment-at-will doctrineEmployment contracts If a contract exists, you must adhere to its terms and conditions, including notice requirement, least you breach the contract. Where an employment contract exists for a better period of time (for example, three years) and is silent concerning grounds for termi nating the contract, many state courts have ruled that employers have an implied obligation to discharge only for just cause. Similarly, junctionised employees are governed by the terms and conditions of a collective bargaining agreement-they are not at-will employees.Statutory considerations Dismissals are illegal when based on age, sex, national origin, religion, union membership or any other factor protected by law. Potential problems arise any time you fire someone in a protected class.Public policy exceptions You cannot terminate an employee for such activities as filing a workers compensation claim, whistle blowing, engaging in group activities that protest severe work conditions or refusing to commit an unlawful act on the employers behalf.Implied contract exceptions You may be bound by promises published in your employee handbook or oral promises made at the hiring interview requiring just cause to terminate.In addition, you are prohibited from discharging long-term emplo yees just before they are due to receive anticipated financial benefits (known as an implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing). Because of these limitations, you must attempt to protect the at-will employment status at all costs. And that requires regular reminders about the at-will relationship you have with employees, as well as progressive discipline (Falcone, 2004).ConclusionThe law governing the relationship between an employee and an employer begins when an fracture for employment is made by an employer to an employee. Labor law regulates the entire relationship between employer and employee and the initial hiring process, job duties, wages, promotions, benefits, employment reviews and termination of the employment relationship. It also includes judicial proceeding on the basis of unfair labor practices and discrimination. Sometimes there is a question of whether a worker is an employee or an independent contractor.The courts will usually wager to the relationship an d determine whether the employer had the right to control how the employee performed the job. If that is unclear, the court may look to the nature of the relationship between the employee and the employer. If the employee is substantially economically dependent upon the employer, then in the end the bottom line would be that there is an employee-employer relationship.ReferencesCastagnera, J. (1988). Personnel Law Book. Greenvale, New York Panel PublishersFalcone, P. (2004). A legal Dichotomy. Retrieved folk 24, 2006 from http//www.shrm.orgInternal Revenue Service. United States Department of Treasury. Retrieved September 25, 2006 from http//www.irs.govShilling, D. (1998). Human Resources and the Law. Printice hall. Paramus, New Jersey.

Roller Coaster Physics

Individuals love to go to the pastime position and try out the rides that be available. The intimately common and thrilling ride is the roller coaster. An amusement parking lot is not an amusement park if it does not contain a roller coaster. What makes these roller coasters so fun that e actually amuse parks has one. A lot of people would say it is their extreme high accelerates that makes it very exciting. That is a valid answer, but it is the wrong answer. The speed has no function to do with the excitement.It is more than likely that most people travel faster on their ride along the highway on the way to the amusement park than they would in a roller coaster. Basically the thrill all comes from the acceleration and the feeling of lightness that they produce. bowl coasters thrill people because of their ability to accelerate them downward one moment and upwards the following(a) leftwards one moment and rightwards the next. How does this thrill machine give-up the ghost ? on that point argon two ways that this nous will be answered. First, through the basic principles and then through a more advanced explanation.Roller coaster rides involve a great deal of physics. The ride often begins with a chain and motor which exerts a personnel on the train of rail gondola cars to lift the train to the hand of a tall hill. Once the cars are lifted to the top of the hill, gravity takes over and the rest of the ride works on aptitude transformation. There is no motor or engine that takes a train around the lead. The law of physics is basically the engine of the train. At the top of the hill, the cars possess a bouffant cadence of potential energy because they are elevated very high above the ground.The potential energy depends on the kitty and the height of the prey. As the cars are released they lose a lot of their potential energy but they gain ki take inic energy because all of the potential energy is transferred into kinetic energy. The kinetic energy depends on the mass of the object and the speed of the object. As the cars lose speed, they also lose kinetic energy, but that does not stop the whole thing, inertia is what keeps the cars pitiable. While the cars might slow down when they approach a new hill, it is inertia which moves it forward.Once cars go through entwines, turns and subtleer hills, the just now twinges that act upon the cars are the force of gravity, the normal force and dissipative forces such as circularise resistance. The force of gravity is an internal force and any work done by it does not change the total mechanical energy of the train of cars. The normal force of the running pushing up on the cars is an external force and it always times acts perpendicular to the motion of the cars and it is unable of doing any work to the train of cars.Air resistance if a force capable of doing work on the cars and taking away(predicate) a bit of energy from the total mechanical energy which the cars pos sess. Due to the complexity of this force and the small role that it plays on the large quantity of energy possessed by the cars, it is often neglected. By neglecting air resistance, it abide be said that the total mechanical energy of the train of cars is conserved during the ride. That is to say, the total amount of mechanical energy possessed by the cars is the same throughout the ride. Energy is not gained or lost, only transformed from kinetic energy to potential energy and vice versa.Now that the basics are understood, we can get into more complex things, such as the physics of making a roller coaster amusing. We let said that it is the acceleration that makes it exciting. The most exciting part of a roller coaster is when it approaches the loops, and centripetal acceleration occurs inwardly those loops. The most common loop of a roller coaster ride is the loop that looks like a tide rip drop, it is not a perfect circle. These loops are called clothoid loops. A clothoid is a section of a spiral in which the radius is constantly changing, unlike a circle where the radius is constant.The radius at the bottom of a clothoid loop is much larger than the radius at the top of the clothoid loop. As a roller coaster passenger travels through a clothoid loop, he/she will experiences an acceleration due to both a change in speed and a change in direction. A rightward moving passenger gradually becomes an upward moving rider, then a leftward moving rider, then a downward moving rider, before finally seemly a rightward-moving rider once again. There is a continuing change in the direction of the rider as he/she will moves through the clothoid loop. A change in direction is one thing of an accelerating object.The rider also changes speed. As the rider begins to climb upward the loop, he/she begins to slow down. What we talked about suggests that an amplify in height results in a decrease in kinetic energy and speed and a decrease in height results in an increas e in kinetic energy and speed. So the rider experiences the greatest speeds at the bottom of the loop. The change in speed as the rider moves through the loop is the second part of acceleration which the riders experiences. A rider who moves through a circular loop with a constant speed, the acceleration is centripetal and towards the center of he circle. In this case of a rider moving through a noncircular loop at non-constant speed, the acceleration of the rider has two parcels. There is a component which is directed towards the center of the circle (ac) and relates itself to the direction change and the other component is directed tangent (at) to the track and relates itself to the cars change in speed. This tangential component would be directed opposite the direction of the cars motion as its speed decreases and in the same direction as the cars motion as its speed.At the very top and the very bottom of the loop, the acceleration is primarily directed towards the center of the circle. At the top, this would be in the downward direction and at the bottom of the loop it would be in the upward direction. Inward acceleration of an object is caused by an inward net force. Circular motion or curved path such as a clothiod requires an inwards component of net force. If all the forces which act upon the object are added together as vectors, then the net force would be directed inwards.Neglecting friction and air resistance, a roller coaster car will experience two forces which I have mentioned earlier. The normal force is always acting in a direction perpendicular to the track and the gravitational force is always acts downwards. We will discuss the copulation magnitude and direction of these two forces for the top and the bottom of the loop. At the bottom of the loop, the track pushes upwards upon the car with a normal force. However, at the top of the loop the normal force is directed downwards because the track is above the car, it pushes downwards upon the car.The magnitude of the force of gravity acting upon the passenger (or car) can easily be found using the equation Fgrav = m*g where g = acceleration of gravity (approx. 10 m/s2). The magnitude of the normal force depends on two factors which are the speed of the car, the radius of the loop and the mass of the rider. The normal force is always greater at the bottom of the loop than it is at the top. The normal force must always be of the appropriate size to combine with the force of gravity in a way to make the required inward or centripetal net force.At the bottom of the loop, the force of gravity points outwards away from the center of the loop. The normal force must be sufficiently large to overcome this force of gravity and supply some excess force to result in a net inward force. Basically the force of gravity and the force of normal are playing a tug of war and force of normal must win by an amount equal to the net force. At the top of the loop, both forces are directed inwar ds. The force of gravity is found in the universal way using the equation Fgrav = m*g. Once more the normal force must issue sufficient force to produce the required inward or centripetal net force.

The Nuremberg Trials

Professor Henry King (2003) declare that, in that location is no greater ch tot tout ensembleyenge currently confronting the global community than that of defining the scope of internationalist human rights. And rightly so, as we observe the present day atrocities pull all all over the man as well as how the progression of international faithfulness has developed musical arrangements to adjudicate on these disputed matters. One of the to the highest degree pi wholenessnessering landmark cases in international law is the Nuremberg War tribulations.Along with its significance, perhaps, it is as well unmatchable of the or so debatable. Judge Charles E. Wyzanski, Jr. (1946) wrote to those who support the trial it promises the first effective recognition of a universe of discourse law for the punishment of male concomitantors who start contendfares or conduct them in bestial fashion (p.66). On the early(a) hand, Wyzanski argues that, to the adverse critics the trial app ears in m whatso constantly aspects a negation of principles which they regard as the heart of any system of merelyice under law. Such a chasm in opinion created sev timel theoretically relevant gunpoints in analyzing the memorial of international criminal law.It is often said that history is written by the victors. The unify States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and France, victors of the 1939-1945 World War II, organized these trials to implead the Nazi leaders for self-assertive acts and contend disgusts. About sextette million Jews and nearly five million other Europeans were stumbleed en masse in a phenomenon called the Holocaust.This is often benchmarked by international organizations as one of the first acts of genocide. This paper aims to discuss the international crimes indicted in the Nuremberg Trials, describe the judgment passed on the Nazi defendants, present opposing views and controversies on the matter, and analyze the significance of the Nuremberg Trials in comparison to the current criminal justice system.Nuremberg court of justiceOn August 8, 1945, the representatives of the four Allied powers officially embroiled The Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of Major War Criminals of the European Axis, and Establishing the operate of the transnational legions Tribunal (IMT). Two months after, this Agreement and the IMT Charter became the legal basis for the indictment of the Nazi leaders on the four counts discussed below.Nuremberg Principles the Four Counts of IndictmentFour Counts of Indictment were the basis of the charge against the Nationalsozialistische Deitsche Arbeiterpartei (Nazi caller) leadership by the supranational Military Tribunal. These Counts include conspiracy to commit aggressive war, crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against adult male. Critics of the Nuremberg Trials maintain that these Counts were in the nature of an ex post facto law, or one that was not a criminal act when it was first connected, yet became guilty later on by statute or legislation (Wyzanski, 1946).After all, one of the most unsophisticated legal principles is one that holds nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege there is no crime where there is no law penalize such. Supporters of the Nuremberg Trials contend that international law, natural law and civil law jurisdictions adhere to the agreements between states and are compelled to adopt the internationally recognized standards, including the doctrines enshrined in the Nuremberg Trials.Count 1 ConspiracyConspiracy, commonly stated as, the act of one is the act of all, or the collusion of two or more commonwealth in the commission of an offense, was launch as an additional and separate substantive offense from Counts One to Three. To assert conspiracy is to define that there is a wrong done when, acting together for an unlawful end, he who joins in that action incurs indebtedness not only for the act planned, or participated in, or c ould reasonably be foreseen to happen, but also for any single act that his co-conspirators committed.For instance, Julius Streicher was found guilty by the multinational Military Tribunal at Nuremberg for remove incitement and encouraging the commission of war crimes in the following a punitive expedition essential come against the Jews in Russia. A punitive expedition which will provide the same fate for them that every(prenominal) murderer and criminal must expect. Death sentence and execution. The Jews in Russia must be killed. They must be ex examineal conditioninated root and branch (Schabas, 2000, p. 278-279).Wyzanski (1946) asks what is the basis for asserting such a broad and substantive crime in international law? Aside from the notion be new, is it not fundamentally unjust? He reasons that a trial, when used as propaganda, is to debase justice. This is one of the strongest arguments posited by the critics of the Nuremberg Trials.Count 2 Crimes Against PeaceGermany was a party to nine international treaties that condemn the plotting and waging of wars of aggression (the type where a state is the instigator of the war, and not merely in defense of national security). The Geneva protocol declared wars of aggression as international crimes not merely uncivilized styles of waging war but also the waging in any way of uncivilized wars (Wyzanski, 1946).Count 3 War CrimesWar crimes are in violation of the rules on war delimit in international conventions, to which Germany was a party. This systematic course of conduct toward both civilians and combatants, excessive destruction of territories, with clear knowledge of the defendants, was deemed to be punishable, according to the 1946 article by Charles E. Wyzanski, Jr. It is aggression itself that was criminalized.This Count was the most criticized for being retroactive legislation since the history of warfare has not absolved the organizers of the Nuremberg International Military Tribunal from t heir own acts of warfare in their respective colonies. The Allied Forces (United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and France) were also known for committing war time atrocities in their own jurisdictions but critics point out that only the Nazis were held to account for their wartime liabilities. Other aggressive wars prior to World War II were not punished by international tribunals prior to the one constituted at Nuremberg.Count 4 Crimes against HumanityThe horrors of Auschwitz and other parts of Germany and Europe where Jews, Poles and Gypsies were massacred in stone-cold blood were defined as crimes against humanity, as described in the opening address to the Nuremberg Trials by US Supreme Court Justice Robert H. Jackson (King, 2003). Despite the innocence of the civilians, they were contentedness to various(a) atrocities ordered by the Nazi leadership deliberate and systematic genocide of racial and national groups of certain occupied territories, as charged in the case of France et al. v. Goering et al., 22 IMT 203 (1946) as cited by William Schabas (pp. 37-38).Murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war, or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the International Tribunal, enumerated the crimes falling under the definition of crimes against humanity submitted by the American delegation to the Charter of the International Military Tribunal that heard the Nuremberg Trials (Schabas, 2000, p.36).Nuremberg JudgmentNazi defendants Bormann, Goering, von Ribbentrop, and Jodl among others, were sentenced to demise by hanging. On October 16, 1946, ten of them were hanged bit Goering committed suicide. Bormann was tried in absentia prior to that while Hess, Doenitz, and five others were awarded ten age to life story imprisonment in Spandau Prison, Berlin. 185 defendants were tried subs equently by US judges, including Nazi Party officials, judges, business executives, and doctors.Biographical SketchFrom November 20, 1945 until October 1, 1946, the Nuremberg Palace of Justice in Nuremberg City, Germany became the host of a series of trials fraught with contentious debates. These trials before the International Military Tribunal adjudicated on war crimes. The most prominent was the first trial which prosecuted 24 of the top Nazi Germany (Nationalsozialistische Deitsche Arbeiterpartei) leadership in the realms of politics, economy and military. Of the 23 were originally charged, 12 were meted out death sentences but only 10 were imposed. Even organizations problematical take flight under the penumbra of these war crimes (Wyzanski, 1964).Applicable diachronic TheoryHistorical theories birthed by the Nuremberg trials include international law concepts, the formation of a tribunal, and responses to the defenses invoked by the accused. United Nations member States ado pted the four counts of indictment as definitions of internationally punishable acts. These theories were further codified in the Charter of the IMT which acquired jurisdiction over States that ratified the Agreement. Some defenses root in customary law were embossed head of State immunity superior orders and tu quoque (the adversary committed similar atrocities).Of these, the IMT at Nuremberg denied the defense of head of State immunity because it was formally provided in the Charter that constitutionally responsible rulers, public officials or private individuals are liable. The defense of superior orders was also excluded by the IMT to split up ambiguities. The Nuremberg Trials underscored the moral duty of citizens to disobey inhumane orders that contravene natural law principles of justice. However, the defense of tu quoque was glossed over at Nuremberg since the World War II behavior of the Allied powers would render the legal justifications of the IMT vulnerable to attack ( Schabas, 2000, pp. 314-342).Historical Theory In Comparison to Our Current Criminal Justice SystemThe United Nations General host Economic and Social Council created an ad hoc committee to draft a convention on the crime of genocide. In this convention, they resolved to formulate Nuremberg Principles into the provisions. Several UN member States raised the ideological angle in linking genocide to step on it theories like Fascism-Nazism. Thus, the Nuremberg principles were adopted in the preamble, by its analogy to punishing war criminals for similar acts of genocide (Schabas, 2000, p. 62-64). onwards the April 1994 genocide in Rwanda, the hate-mongering Radio Mille Collines was broadcasting messages to incite the population to commit massacres of the Tutsi and some Hutu civilians (Schabas, 2000, p.279). There is a chilling similarity to the situation of Nazi Germany where the Nuremberg court found such direct incitement punishable for direct incitement of acts of genocide, hatred, and violence which led to the Jewish Holocaust, among others. The criminal justice system of today and that of the Nuremberg era are both united in recognizing the criminal nature of hate propaganda and adopting measures to curb incitements to violence by adjudicating against the perpetrators.The US war on Iraq also raises delicate issues that can be attributable to the Nuremberg precedent. The historical theories and defenses raised would pose a strong ideological challenge to the criminality of certain acts that States commit against other States in the guise of protecting national security and the hegemonic concepts of development. While the US-Iraq war is said to be a suave legal arena, the IMT of Nuremberg may have much to say on the matter.ConclusionSixty two years ago until the present, the precedent set by the Nuremberg Trials is lock up being used as the rallying point for other analogous crimes. The four counts of indictment were codified into a formal Agreement along w ith the Charter for the IMT. Defenses normally recognized under customary law were denied by express provision of the Charter. Although the criminalization of these counts was still imperfect, provoking legal contentions even, the millions of lives lost during the war deserve the chance to have the scales of justice tilted in their favor. Through the constantly evolving international legal theories, one can only hope that humanity would be able to devise ways to put an end to the abject horror of war.ReferencesSchabas, W. (2000). Genocide in International Law The Crimes of Crimes. Cambridge Cambridge University Press.King, Henry. (2003, May 1). Robert Jackson and International Human Rights. Retrieved November 20, 2007, from http//www.roberthjackson.org/Man/theman2-6-6/Wyzanski, C. E., Jr. (1946, April). NurembergA Fair Trial? Dangerous Precedent. The Atlantic Monthly, Volume 177, No. 4, 66-70.The Nuremberg TrialsA brief look at the Nuremberg Trials and some of the spate involved. It steps upon the problems leading to the start of the trials including three of the doctors, three of the experiments performed on prisoners, and the judgment of three people involved with carrying out the vulgar experiments. Also include are three people who decided to commit suicide instead of facing certain death after going before a jury. The three people who committed suicide were also three of the biggest people involved in building the Nazi party in Germany and its surrounding areas.The Nuremberg Trials, a glimpse into the Nazis that committed crimes during WWII, exposes the lives destroyed, and the precedents set forth from this new category of crime, the war criminal. (Brown, 1995) The trials included 24 major political and military leaders who committed crimes against humanity and war crimes, (Congress, 2009) and did so without remorse or emotion for what their victims were going through. It was not until 1945 when the trials began that the full extent of what was truly taking property in the denseness camps and in the extermination camps (death camps) were revealed.The truth about medical experiments, atrocities, crimes against humanity, and membership in a criminal organization were grounds for the Nuremberg trials to commence and would become the precedents for all war crimes that would follow. (Congress, 2009) War crimes are defined as violations of the laws in which a persons given rights are compromised. In broadest terms, a war crime is any act of violence by military personnel that exceeds the rules of war.To an extent, the concentration camps were guilty of all violations listed above and it was because of the crimes committed by the leaders in the camps that the Nuremberg trials became a necessity in order to grow an example out of the people who committed the crimes. An argument that can be made about the Nuremberg trials is the fact that the crimes against humanity were made, but there was no precedent for war crimes before these tr ials started. It wasnt until after the trials that the term crimes against humanity and war crimes became standard in the practice of law in all types of war entanglements.The International Military Tribunal (IMT) consisted of four allied powers including Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States and were responsible for the outcome of every person being tried in the Nuremberg trials. (Cowell, 1995) The lasting contribution of Nuremberg was to make individuals responsible, for their genocidal contributions to the war. (Cowell, 1995) By the end of the Nuremberg trials in 1946, there were 12 people convicted and sentenced to death, three were judge, and seven were sentenced to prison terms of 10 years to life.Unfortunately, Hitler, Goebbels, and Himmler committed suicide before they could be tried for the crimes they committed. Adolf Hitler was appointed the chancellor of the Nazi party in 1933 and oversaw the murder of over 17 million civilians with an estimated sextet million Jews in what is known as the Holocaust, but Hitler took his life just days before the allied forces took Germany by force. (Farmer, 2007) Paul Joseph Goebbels was one of Hitlers closest associates and took over the position of Chancellor of Germany for just one day after Hitler committed suicide.Goebbels committed suicide just a day before Germany was taken by allied forces. It was not until after Goebbels and his wife took their six childrens lives that they finally took their own lives. (Reich, 2009) Heinrich Himmler was the head of the Gestapo and the organizer of the mass murders of Jews in the extermination camps during Hitlers sway and took poison to commit suicide after he was discovered wearing a disguise and trim back into British hands after escaping capture in Germany.These are just a few pick out people in the genocide that happened in Germany during WWII and they decided to commit suicide rather than be prosecuted for the lives they destroyed. A few of the people involved in the Nuremberg trials included Karl Brandt, Erhard Milch, and Oswald Pohl. Karl Brandt was the personal physician to Adolf Hitler and the commissioner for health and sanitation and was also the chief medical official of the German government during WWII. Brandt contributed to the experiments being performed on the inmates in the concentration camps and was sentenced to death and executed.Erhard Milch was a member of the Central Planning Board and had full power over the agenda that controlled the production and development of materials by forced labor during the war. He also assisted in the experiments being performed at the Dachau concentration camp in which high altitude and freezing experiments were conducted. (Congress, 2009) In the end, Milch was acquitted of the charges concerning medical experiments and found guilty of charges concerning slave labor, and sentenced to life in prison but was shortened to 15 years in 1951.Oswald Pohl was chief of the SS Wirtschafts und Verwaltungshauptamt (WVHA Economic and Administrative Main Office) which took the gravel of several offices including Budget and Buildings and the attempter of Concentration Camps. (College, 2003) In the end, Pohl received the death penalty for his social occasion in the transportation of prisoners, murder, medical experiments, and his involvement in the mass executions of mostly Jews and other civilians.There were a couple of bewilders in which the mass executions took place which included both concentration camps and extermination camps that were familiar with Hitler and the objectives he wanted to achieve during his reign during WWII. The camps included Auschwitz and Dachau which were places where experiments and death took place. Auschwitz was the place that mass murder became a daily routine after an experimental assail was conducted in September of 1941 where 850 malnourished and ill prisoners entered gas domiciliate and never escaped the anguish they f elt up as they took their last breaths. Bulow, 2009) Dachau was another concentration camp where prisoners were mistreated and is more known for the brutal experiments that took place than executions in mass quantities like in Auschwitz. Just a few experiments that took place at the Dachau concentration camp that were brought out more clearly in the Nuremberg trials included high altitude experiments, freezing experiments, and malaria experiments. (Congress, 2009) mellow altitude experiments were performed to test the limits of human endurance at high altitudes.The tests were performed in low pressure chambers where the pressure of 68,000 feet could be duplicated and measures, many died from this procedure and others suffered grave injury and ill treatment. The freezing experiments involved placing the subject in a tank of ice water for up to three hours without cloths or the victims were placed immaterial in freezing temperatures also without cloths to test the effects. After the victims were removed from the water or brought in from the cold, various methods of warming the victims up were tried, but the outcome was either death or the victims suffered severe pain and disability.The malaria experiment involved infecting healthy concentration camps with malaria bearing mosquitoes or by injecting the disease into victims from the mucous of the glands of mosquitoes. Most of the test subjects died or suffered from severe pain or disability. (Congress, 2009) In the end, the Nuremberg trials were justified because of the ways in which the Nazis treated the prisoners they turn into victims through the use of force and through sheer neglect. No man or woman should ever have had to endure what the prisoners of war during WWII endured.It was unconscionable what happened behind closed doors and the walls keeping the Nazis in control, but because of the Nuremberg trials, the truth came to be known about how relentless the Nazis were towards human life. A question is a lways asked in history classes, why does history need to be taught, and the answer is always in order to avoid repeating the mistakes from the past. This was one of the worst times in history, and this paper is just a short excerpt to all the turmoil associated with Hitlers ideals of the perfect world.Referenceshttp//www.auschwitz.dk/Auschwitz.htmhttp//www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/Nuremberg_trials.htmlhttp//www.writing.upenn.edu/afilreis/Holocaust/nuremberg.htmlhttp//law.jrank.org/pages/2311/War-Crimes.html